A. 城市規劃外文文獻翻譯3000字
你這個命題的定義太含糊了。國外城市規劃的什麼對大城市建設的影響呢？而且國外城市規劃類型太多了，美國跟歐洲的城市規劃方式就不一樣啊。
而且，大城市的定義是什麼？我也忘記多少人以上算大城市了····
可以從城市空間構成，城市景觀，城市發展目標，城市基礎設施建設等方面進行著手。
B. 城市規劃外文文獻翻譯 用英語怎麼說
How to say in English: translation of foreign literature in urban planning
用英語怎麼說，如果不是翻譯內容：
Translation of foreign literature in urban planning
C. 城市規劃的英文文獻原文，翻譯成中文要大概3000-5000字，議論文
外文文獻有，翻譯沒有，翻譯得靠你自己了，如果需要直接網路Hi中留言同時貼出問題的鏈接地址和郵箱地址即可，希望能滿足你的需要，能幫到你，並請及時知道評價，多多給點懸賞分吧，急用的話請多選賞點分吧，這樣更多的知友才會及時幫到你，我找到也是很花時間的，並請及時採納
D. 我也想找關於小區規劃的外文文獻，並把它翻譯成中文
有的話我也要一份
E. 誰能幫我找一篇城市規劃方面的外文論文，並翻譯一下
摘要：人類社會發展正面臨著人口膨脹、資源超前消耗、環境急劇惡化的空前挑戰，可持續發展理念指導下的的現代城市規劃，決定了我國的大部分地區只能追求以公共交通為基礎的高質量的可達性。具有多項顯著優點的軌道交通(尤其是地鐵運輸模式)，是解決大城市中心區域交通擁堵問題的最佳途徑，但必須在依託改善既有公交系統、並通過優化網路便捷換乘而達到相互協調配合的前提下，注意降低它的建造運營成本。
關鍵詞：可持續發展；城市規劃；軌道交通；建造運營成本
作為文明歷史發展中的嶄新時代，城市的誕生宣告了人類生存方式的徹底變革，也由此開創了城市建設與規劃的初始形態。今天，伴隨全球化的大潮，中國正經歷著前所未有人口遷移與國土城市化過程，充滿中國特色的城市規劃實踐，越來越體現出面向未來可持續發展的先進理念。交通是現代城市規劃中一個不可或缺的方面，對於中國這樣一個各方面處於跳躍式發展的人口大國，科學地制定切合實際又具有前瞻性的城市交通規劃，意義尤其重大深遠。
本文以當前城市化加速背景下城市交通規劃面臨的重大選擇作為切入點，對如何解決軌道交通與現存城市公交系統的協調發展，特別是如何經濟、優化地建造與運營城市軌道交通，提出自己的看法與建議。
1 軌道交通是我國城市交通規劃的重大選擇
城市交通規劃面臨的一切問題起源於三個基本因素：人口劇增、城市化加謎與出行方式機動化。為此，規劃者們必須在各種可能的決策方向之問慎重取捨。國外專業雜志《世界城市化展望》2004年載文指出，全世界人口從1950的25億左右增長到2000年60多億，只用了半個世紀的時間，預計再過30年將達到80億以上。作為世界最大的發展中國家，中國改革開放二十多年來的社會經濟發展帶動了1億3千萬農村人口流入城市，一般城市居民的交通出行方式也在過去二十多年裡發生了根本性的變化。城市出行方式機動化日益加速，造成了今日中國主要大中城市裡司空見慣的「出門難行路難」問題。專業人士稱之為嚴重的城市道路交通擁擠。
一般而言，城市交通方式大致可分為步行、自行車、摩托助動車、小汽車與公共交通國內外的城市交通基本上都經歷過從步行、自行車到摩托、小汽車大體相同的發展過程。但是，當人類普遍進入小汽車時代後，美國和歐洲選擇了不同的交通方式和城市形態。美國以小汽車為主要交通工具，城市多數呈現分散、蔓延的形態。歐洲大陸則十分重視公交、特別是軌道交通，大城市通過軌道交通將市中心、近郊生活就業區與遠郊衛星城鎮連結起來，形成多中心的城市形態[1]。軌道交通系統的誕生，使城市的發展從中心聚集型向離心分散型轉變成為可能，也因此造就了城市中心的「職住分離」現象。應該承認，私人小汽車和軌道交通是目前發達國家城市中具有代表性的兩種交通方式，分別突出地體現著更優的生活質量與更高的運輸效率。改革開放前，這兩種交通方式在我國大城市中的數量少到幾乎可以忽視不計的程度，近年來，它們已分別邁出了從無到有的第一步，表現_出強大的生命力。
城市的功能和社會活動的多樣化是大城市的基本特徵，由此決定了大城市的交通需求必然是多種多樣的，人們可選擇的出行方式也應該是多種多樣的，並且所有的出行方式都可以在各自適用的范圍內發揮出最大優勢口[2]。我國的城市交通機動化正處於起步狀態，自行車等非機動車仍是目前大部分城市中居民出行的主導方式。隨著社會經濟持續、快速增長與人民物質文化水平不斷提高，建立多層次、立體型多元化的交通體系，是我國數量迅速增長的大城市的唯一發展方向。在此目標之下，科學規劃的軌道交通理論上提供了最大限度滿足可持續發展要求的可能性。
城市交通擁擠現狀，決定了各級政府部門在宏觀決策過程中，理當重點考慮規劃在環境系統、資源系統、社會系統等多方面具有可持續發展優勢的城市軌道交通公共交通系統[3]，這方面國內刊物近來論著頗多，本文不欲在此重復贅述。以下謹從技術與經濟的角度，探討進一步解決軌道交通建設面臨的一些具體問題，加速走向它的現實可行性。
2 軌道交通需重視與城市公交系統的和諧
一般而言，軌道交通規劃工作的核心內容是要充分實現路線選址與轉乘配套兩者的最優化，與現有的公交系統在各個環節上達到最大限度的互相補充協調運作。
首先，城市軌道交通是一項涉及面廣泛復雜、需要許多專業協調配合的大型系統工程，必須與城市建設發展中長期規劃密切結合起來進行。作為城市規劃的有機構成部分，軌道交通的規劃與整個城市交通的線網規劃實為一體。為了避免客流稀少，線路走向應盡可能合理，否則，小客流低運量必然導致軌道交通無法發揮預期的骨幹作用。總之，結合城市的總體客運需求合理規劃布局，是保證城市軌道交通主導地位的必要條件。當然，這種合理布局要充分考慮不同城市的用地空間總體規劃。北京地鐵線明顯採用了沿城市道路走向布局的方式，軌道交通網路形態與市區道路棋盤式格局高度一致，恰恰體現了保護北京古城的特殊要求。這方面類似的例子，還有南京地鐵1號線採用高架方式從中華門附近跨越古城，也充分考慮了地下車站與周圍環境、高架線路與地面景觀的協調需要。
其次，在以軌道交通為主導編制城市公交綜合規劃時，要十分注意加強交通換乘樞紐的建設，將軌道交通與現有的常規公交體系統一安排、有序調整，保證輕軌、地鐵等軌道交通與城市公共汽車、計程車、輪渡等多種交通工具的方便轉接，以及與機場、火車站、港口等其他運輸場所的順利銜接。前文所舉的歐洲發達國家的大城市，面對小汽車交通的沖擊，紛紛尋求一種新的交通發展模式，在通向郊區的沿線地鐵站大量修建小汽車停車場，引導小汽車乘客換乘後進入中心城區，使軌道交通的大運量優勢得以發揮。國內方面新近建成的上海火車南站，則成功地將鐵路與兩條城市軌道交通與幾十路近、遠郊公交汽車線的零距離換乘需要融入規劃設計中，成為一個值得學習借鑒的樣本。
最後，我們不能不充分注意軌道交通與整合改善城市常規公交之間的互動關系。世界上絕大多數國家的軌道交通都是在既有城市公交體系形成後逐漸發展起來的。在未來相當長一段時間內，公共汽車／電車仍將是人們出行使用較廣泛的交通工具之一。根據我國許多城市目前的經濟發展水平與人口規模及交通總量需求，常規公交的整體地位短期內變化不大。但是，常規公交系統效率低下的現狀應該在逐步發展軌道交通的過程中加以綜合整治與改善。除了科學制訂線網布局，修建港灣式停靠站台，合理編制車輛運行圖，建設服務查詢顯示信息系統等具體措施外，從規劃立法角度保障公交的道路優先使用權的思路也有待於細化落實。
近來，在軌道與公交配套發展背景如何建設大容量快速公交系統(BRT)引起了專業規劃人員的高度關注。BRT是一種利用現代化大容量專用車輛、在專用道路空間快速行駛的一種公交方式。它具有接近軌道交通的運力與快捷，建造和運營成本又相對低廉，而且很大程度上可以利用改造提升現有的城市公交道路系統，在某些人口規模不是很大的城市中甚至可以考慮作為軌道交通的替代方式。
2003年國務院81號文件出台後，國內許多城市馬上把發展BRT項目推到了緩解城市交通擁堵的前台。北京市新近編制的中心城區公共汽／電車廠線網規劃中包含了18條BRT線路，總長約300多km，在強調機動性與可達性高度協調的前提下，首次將BRT作為一個功能層次融人公交線網整體結構中。此外，昆明市在園藝世博會期間開通的國內首條位於道路中央的公交專用道，即將升級為規范的現代BRT系統。杭州根據城市發展模式與空間功能布局制訂的中遠期公交規劃，也確立以軌道與BRT為骨幹，東西走向穿城而過的首條28 km BRT今年已基本開通。 3 軌道交通應解決低成本建造運營問題
作為城市中最大的基礎建設項目之一的城市軌道交通投資巨大，京、滬、穗前幾年修建地鐵的綜合造價平均每千米超過了6億元人民幣。顯然，大多數國內城市的經濟能力很難承受起如此高昂的成本。因此，不解決軌道交通的造價問題，城市軌道交通難以實現。綜合考慮軌道交通的建造與運營費用，筆者以為解決成本問題擬應圍繞以下三個方面認真思考。
3．1 軌道交通的用地空間應體現預留漸進原則
一般軌道交通建設成本中，包括拆遷費用在內的佔用土地成本是其中不可忽視的一個組成部分，並不因為某些國家無償劃撥方式而改變它的社會成本性質。為了降低這方面的成本，許多城市在已經完成的公交總體規劃中，都為軌道交通的線路場站建設預留了用地空間。然而，線路建設的具體時機取決於城市發展的不同進程，某些線路的客流形成需要一個長期漸進的過程。
因此，如何既能適應逐漸增長的客流需要，又能合理有效地利用預留土地空間，是低成本發展軌道交通中必須慎重規劃考慮的現實問題。在巴西的大多數城市裡，市政當局大都在軌道交通近期沒有開發的走廊上發展前文介紹的快速公交，將BRT專用道建在道路中央，初衷就是為了降低軌道交通項目的初期投資與運營費用[4]。實際上，北京2005年全線通車的第一條BRT線路，正是敷設在預留的M8軌交走廊上，完全滿足了近期單向8 000人次／h的客流需求。
經濟合理地使用土地空間，不僅需要作為城市規劃中發展軌道交通的指導原則加以確立，更應當具體落實在軌道交通系統工程的每一個子項目的設計圖紙上。根據《上海市城市總體規劃1999—2020》，到2020年將建成800 km左右軌道交通線，如果全都繼續採取目前的集中供電模式，屆時僅該項子系統就需建造50多座主變電所。
暫且不論一座主變電所動轍上億元的巨額投資，僅建造變電所及電纜通道所需佔用消耗的土地資源就將十分驚人。有鑒於此，最近上海相關部門已組織專家進行優化方案論證，將2020年前全網18條線路原先計劃建造的51座主變電所減少為39座，更可節約投資10億元人民幣以上。
3．2 軌道交通的建造模式要體現經濟合理原則
世界城市軌道交通近百年的歷史展現了豐富多彩的發展模式，為我們提供了地鐵輕軌、導軌、有軌電車、郊區鐵路、磁懸浮等多種選擇模式，線型電機牽引系統則被公認為最有發展前途的一種在我國百萬以上人口的城市中，因地制宜地利用現有條件低成本發展軌道交通，已有了一些成功的經驗。上海的明珠輕軌一期有3／4長度是改造利用原先的鐵路內環線，這對武漢等其他一些存在廢棄或利用率很低的鐵路既有線路城市，不啻是一種有益的啟發與示範。另外，東北沈陽、長春、哈爾濱等城市，還存有部分有軌電車線路[5]，在此基礎上統一規劃發展現代軌道交通，應該也能夠達到節省一部分費用成本的目的。
其實，國內城市軌道交通建設成本居高不下的原因之一，還在於脫離國情片面追求豪華檔次。表現在規劃設計上就是大量採用類似於公共汽車系統的高線網密度、小站間距、低負荷強度。需知，軌道交通本質上屬於快速大量運送中長距離乘客的交通工具，依靠其他交通工具為它輸送客源，達到大運量高負荷。由於低線網密度、大站間距模式能夠明顯提高運行速度、縮短旅行時間，所以不但可以降低工程造價，而且還可以降低運行成本。正因為如此，將BRT系統規劃為軌道交通線路兩端的延伸段，或選擇「軌交+BRT」的混合網路模式，都有助於達到適當降低軌道線網敷設密度的低成本目標。
另外，國內軌道交通運營成本高的部分原因，還與計劃經濟遺留下的傳統思維方式與條塊分割的管理模式密切相關。直到今天，許多城市在申請軌道交通立項時，每條線路都規劃有獨立使用的車輛段、控制中心、主要變電站，這套小而全的空間與管理體系必然造成資源的極大浪費。在軌道交通十分發達的日本，帝都高速交通營團運營管轄著8條線路總長183．2 km，但是所屬16個車站統共只設置了1座綜合控制中心。反觀國內，即使在資源共享程度較高的上海地鐵系統，已建和待建的控制中心仍有8座，另加1座軌道交通運營協調及應急中心。
3．3 軌道交通的管理配套要體現因地制宜原則
如前所述，城市軌道交通的規劃不應盲目追求高標准，該建地面、高架的絕不鑽入地下、該建輕軌的絕不建地鐵，因為後者的造價往往是前者的3倍以上。此外，對地鐵建設成本影響甚大的土建工程中，其地下車站底板的埋置深度與車站建築高度是決定造價大小的兩個關鍵因素。因此，合理設計基坑深度與車站建築高度對降低總成本的意義，無論如何也不應低估。
如果說軌交模式、建造標準的選擇較多地影響到土建工程造價部分，軌道工。程總造價的另外一半(45%～50 %)則取決於技術裝備等硬體的建設、購置、安裝費用。以地鐵車輛為例，目前國產價格僅為進口產品的1／2～1／4。因此，降低成本費用的關鍵之一，是提高構成技術裝備主要部分的車輛、牽引、供電、信號的國產化水平。這方面，較晚竣工投入使用的南京地鐵為我們提供了很有說服力的例證。據有關雜志介紹，該項目通過車輛項目的合同談判與國產化方案的慎密調整，大大減少了進口部件和材料，降低了進口設備的國際運輸成本，在成功實現70 國產化率的情況下，車輛項目合同價從最初的每輛約135萬美元降低到116．5萬美元，與設計概算相比節約投資4 000多萬人民幣。
當然，軌道交通總體上屬於公共產品領域，單純的票務收入遠遠不足以償付開通後的日常性運營支出，中長期的財務收支平衡對世界各國都是一個需要艱難應對的挑戰。筆者了解到的香港地鐵總收入中，票務收入約佔60 ，其餘40 9，6中廣告與物業管理各佔一半[6]，這一香港較為成功的地鐵和物業綜合發展經營模式，今年初已通過成立中港合營公司引入北京地鐵4號線的管理，各方都期待著它能為國內軌道交通建設運營展示一種令人鼓舞的前景。
參考文獻
1 鄒勝勇．面向可持續發展的城市總體交通結構優化[J]．交通運輸系統工程與信息，2006，6(2)：108．
2 David BAYLISS．世界范圍的城市交通可達性現狀(英文)[J]．TRI雜志(交通版)，2006(2)：17—18．
3 樊穎瑋．城市交通可持續發展問題的思考[J]．交通與運輸，2006(2)：67．
4 全永棠，孫壯志．關於BRT與軌道交通的理性思考[J]．交通運輸系統工程與信息，2006，6(2)：117．
5 孫章．城市軌道交通的世紀回眸[J]．上海交通運輸，2006(3)：14．
6 P．Y．Loo，L．Y．Chow．可持續城市交通：理念，政策與方法(英文)[J]．ASCE，2006(6)：76—77
F. 急求！！！本科畢業設計的城市規劃外文翻譯資料，要有外文原文章的，也要有翻譯的中文的，。
如果你想找人代做的話，可以去找一些比較好的畢業設計網，比較能信得過的，上次我一個朋友
在星海畢業設計網上做過一個設計，他們還不錯的。你可以找他們問問看，祝你好運噢。。。
G. 規劃方面英文文獻及翻譯 誰有
Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level.
Another key role of urban planning is urban renewal, and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructural decay.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 History of Planning
2 The Sustainable City
3 Aspects of Planning
3.1 Aesthetics
3.2 Safety
3.3 Slums
3.4 Reconstruction and Renewal
3.5 Transport
3.6 Suburbanization
3.7 Natural environment
4 Actors in the planning process
5 Books Seminal to Urban Planning
6 References
7 Further reading
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] History of Planning
Urban planning as an organised profession has existed for less than a century, however most settlements and cities have displayed various degrees of forethought and conscious design in their layout and functioning.
As agriculture replaced a nomadic existence, permanent human settlements, and larger settlements began to appear. These early cities became centres for trade, defence, and politics and as centres for distributing the agricultural surplus a settled farming society proces.
Cities laid out with forethought and design permeate antiquity. Perhaps the earliest of these were those of the ancient Mesopotamian and Harrapan civilizations of the third century BCE.
Ur located near the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in modern day Iraq and some ancient cities of the Ins Valley in modern day India are perhaps the earliest examples of deliberately planned and managed cities in history. The streets of these early cities were often paved and laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. There was also with a hierarchy of streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways). In Harrapan settlements, archaeological evidence suggests the houses were laid out to protect from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their own wells, and sanitation. Ancient cities often had drainage, large granaries, and well-developed urban sanitation[2]
The Greek Hippodamus (c. 408 BC) is widely considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of Miletus; Alexander commissioned him to lay out Alexandria, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the Mediterranean world, where regularity was aided in large part by its level site near a mouth of the Nile.
The ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact rectilinear grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To rece travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges.[citation needed] Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in Turin.
The idea of rational planning collapsed with the idea of the res publica in the European Early Middle Ages. Round a fortress or fortified abbey or next to a Roman nucleus — sometimes itself abandoned— urban growth occurred "like the annular rings of a tree"[3] whether in an extended village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of elevation contours like the shapes that result from agricultural terracing.
The ideal centrally-planned urban space: Sposalizio by Raphael, 1504The ideal city resurfaced in the Early Renaissance in Florence, where the star-shaped city plan was adapted from the new cannon-resistant star fort. The star-shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of Renaissance urban planning: "The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half— from Filarete to Scamozzi— was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city"[4] Radial streets extend outward from a defined center of military, communal or spiritual power. Only in ideal cities did a centrally-planned structure stand at the heart, as in Raphael's Sposalizio of 1504 (illustration); as built, the unique example of a rationally-planned quattrocento new city center, that of Vigevano, 1493-95, resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. Filarete's ideal city, building on hints in Leone Battista Alberti's De re aedificatoria, was named "Sforzinda" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" Pythagorean figure, the circle, takes no heed of its unlating terrain in Filarete's manuscript.[5]
The true heirs of Greek rational planning were the Muslims, who are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise),[citation needed] although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne.
Many cities in Central American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants.[citation needed]
During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus. Firstly there was the instrialised city of the 19th century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th century there began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City the world's first garden cities, in Hertfordshire, UK. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents.[6]
It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War. After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply constructed and became notorious for their social problems.[7]
Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than making everything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on indivialism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.[8]
[edit] The Sustainable City
Sustainable development has become some sort of a 'buzz-word' in the planning instry, with the recognition that present ways of consumption and living have led to problems like the overuse of natural resources, ecosystem destruction, pollution, growing inequality in cities, the degradation of human living conditions and human-inced climate change. Planners have, as a result, taken to advocating for the development of sustainable cities.[9]
However, the notion of sustainable development can be considered as rather recent and evolving, with many questions surrounding this concept.[10] That said, it is often not difficult to recognise what are 'unsustainable' forms of lifestyles, and urban planning is recognised to play a crucial position in the development of sustainable cities.
Stephen Wheeler, in his 1998 article, suggests a definition for sustainable urban development to be as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns."[11]He goes on to suggest a framework that might help all to better understand what a 'sustainable' city might look like. These include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use, less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economics; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.[12]
The difficult challenge facing planners comes with the implementation of sustainability visions, policy and programmes, and in the midst of doing so, the need to modify institutions to achieve these goals. This is still being worked out by urban planners.
[edit] Aspects of Planning
[edit] Aesthetics
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Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bath (England), 18th century private sector development was designed to appear attractive.In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.[13] Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.[14]
Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood zones.
Some argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna[citation needed].
While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term, smart growth.
There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. (See List of planned cities)
[edit] Safety
The medieval walled city of Carcassonne in France is built upon high ground to provide maximum protection from attackers.Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources[citation needed]. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then the affected regions can be made into parkland or Greenbelt, often with the added benefit of open space provision.
Extreme weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters.
In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more pleasant.
City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence indivials' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more indivial space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism.
Oscar Newman』s defensible space theory cites the modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas, which are hard for residents to identify with. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no indivial feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder Source
Jane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving 『natural surveillance』 of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal behaviour.
The "broken-windows" theory argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment[citation needed].
Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. Haussmann's renovation of Paris created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In Rome (Italy), the Fascists in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. Robert Moses' developments in New York were intended to limit the effectiveness of public transit; bridges over parkways were built too low to accommodate buses, in order to restrict access to the beach by racial minorities and the poor.
Other social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to instry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing indivials to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.
H. 急求！！！關於城市規劃的外文文獻，最好是帶中文翻譯的，畢業設計要用，多謝各位了！
到自己學校的網上圖書館找一篇，找不到再問我，我給你找找，（我只寫過城市管理的）
I. 求一篇跟資源環境與城鄉規劃管理專業相關的外文文獻以及中文翻譯，急用!謝謝！
城市規劃論壇上有專版，去翻翻吧
J. 有關城市規劃專業相關的英文文獻一般在哪些網站上面可以下載到最好有附帶的中文翻譯
CAUP，營國匠